When the planet set limits for us: The origin of sustainable development
- Javier Trespalacios
- Jan 17, 2020
- 16 min read
Updated: Aug 16
Sustainable development, formally defined in 1987 as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (WCED, 1987), represents the synthesis of a historical process that integrated ecological, economic, and social concerns. This definition, established by the World Commission on Environment and Development—also known as the Brundtland Commission—emerged in response to growing evidence of the negative effects of an uncontrolled development model and the growing awareness of the biophysical limits [1] of the planet.
Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway and President of the World Commission on Environment and Development, presents "Sustainable Development" to the United Nations General Assembly, October 1987. (UN Photo/Milton Grant, 1987)
Before 1900: Historical foundations of sustainable thinking
The most remote antecedents of sustainable thinking are found in 18th-century German forest management. Hans Carl von Carlowitz introduced the concept "Nachhaltigkeit" (sustainability) in 1713 in his work Sylvicultura Oeconomica, establishing the principle that only the amount of wood that could naturally regenerate should be harvested (Grober, 2007).
In 1776, Adam Smith, although primarily recognized for his defense of the free market, implicitly recognized in The Wealth of Nations the limits of economic growth and the need for prudent management of common goods (Smith, 1776).
Subsequently, in 1798, Thomas Malthus was a pioneer in warning about the biophysical limits of growth in his Essay on the Principle of Population. His analysis of exponential population growth versus limited increase in food resources laid the theoretical groundwork for understanding general development constraints (Malthus, 1798).
In 1826, the creation of the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) represented a significant advance in the institutionalization of conservation. Although initially oriented toward scientific purposes, the society soon expanded its mission to include the preservation of endangered species, establishing relevant precedents for the subsequent conservation movement (Chalmers-Mitchell, 1929).
1900 – 1945: Industrialization and first environmental alerts
This period was defined by industrial acceleration and two world wars, which transformed the relationship between society and nature. In Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942), Joseph Schumpeter introduced the concept of "creative destruction" as the axis of modern economic dynamics, an analysis that would later serve to understand transitions toward sustainable economic models (Schumpeter, 1942).
The environmental devastation caused by wars, especially World War II, generated initial awareness about the ecological impacts of large-scale human activity.
1945 - 1972: Postwar and environmental awakening
The creation of the United Nations in 1945 established an essential institutional framework for international cooperation on environmental issues. The UN Charter [2] included among its objectives "to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom" (United Nations, 1945).
In 1948, the International Conference for the Protection of Nature, held in Fontainebleau, France, gave rise to the International Union for the Protection of Nature (IUPN), which in 1956 became the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It was the first global organization explicitly dedicated to the conservation of natural resources (Holdgate, 1999).
The rise of environmental consciousness was driven by high-impact publications. In 1962, Rachel Carson published Silent Spring, exposing the harmful effects of pesticides on the environment, especially on birds and aquatic ecosystems. Her work not only generated public concern about chemical pollution but also questioned the paradigm of technological progress without environmental limits, laying the foundations of the modern ecological movement (Carson, 1962).
In 1966, Kenneth Boulding proposed the metaphor of "spaceship Earth" in his essay The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth, highlighting the need to manage the planet as a closed system with finite resources, in contrast to the old vision of unlimited exploitation (Boulding, 1966).
In 1968, Paul Ehrlich published The Population Bomb, expanding the debate about demographic growth and the planet's carrying capacity [3] (Ehrlich, 1968).
Paul R. Ehrlich, The Population Bomb (Ehrlich, 1968)
That same year, the Club of Rome [4] was founded, bringing together experts to analyze the limits of economic growth. Their report The Limits to Growth (1972), directed by Donella Meadows at MIT [5], used computational models to warn that current trends could lead to exceeding planetary limits [6] in less than a century (Meadows et al., 1972).
The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind (Meadows , 1972)
1972: The Stockholm conference: Global institutionalization of the environmental agenda
The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, marked the incorporation of environmental issues into the international political agenda. This meeting led to the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and a declaration of 26 principles that recognized the interdependence between development and environment [7] (United Nations, 1972).
Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, addresses delegates during the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, June 5, 1972. (UN Photo/Yutaka Nagata, 1972)
The Stockholm Conference did not emerge in isolation but was the result of a series of key antecedents. In 1968, the Biosphere Conference organized by UNESCO in Paris represented the first international effort to reconcile environmental conservation with sustainable use of natural resources (UNESCO, 1970). Subsequently, the preparatory meeting in Founex, Switzerland (1971), was fundamental in distinguishing for the first time the differences between environmental problems of developed countries and those of developing countries, thus establishing a conceptual framework for future negotiations (Founex Report, 1971).
1974 - 1983: From ecodevelopment to sustainable development: Conceptual construction
In 1974, during the Cocoyoc Conference in Mexico—organized by UNEP and UNCTAD—economist Ignacy Sachs [8] introduced the concept of "ecodevelopment," a proposal oriented toward harmonizing economic development with ecological limitations and local sociocultural realities. The resulting Cocoyoc Declaration [9] emphasized the need to respect ecological limits and prioritize the satisfaction of basic human needs, although it faced political resistance, especially from the United States (Sachs, 1980; Herrera et al., 1976).
In the following years, several international conferences deepened the relationship between environment and development. In 1976, the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat I) in Vancouver established the connection between the quality of human habitat, economic development, and environmental protection [10] (UN-Habitat, 1976). A year later, the Conference on Desertification in Nairobi adopted an action plan integrating environmental, social, and economic dimensions (UNCOD, 1978). In 1979, the First World Climate Conference in Geneva laid the foundations for the World Climate Programme (WMO, 1979).
The concept of "sustainable development" formally appeared in 1980 with the publication of the World Conservation Strategy [11], prepared by IUCN, UNEP, and WWF. This report defined it as "the modification of the biosphere and the application of human, financial, living and non-living resources to satisfy human needs and improve the quality of life" (IUCN, UNEP & WWF, 1980).
Simultaneously, international reports emerged that laid the groundwork for the subsequent Brundtland Commission:
The Brandt Report (1980), titled "North-South: A Programme for Survival" [12], analyzed global inequalities and proposed an integral approach to economic, social, and environmental challenges (Brandt, 1980).
That same year, the Global 2000 Report, commissioned by President Jimmy Carter, presented projections on population trends, natural resources, and environment (Barney, 1980).
Finally, in 1982, the Palme Commission linked international security with environmental degradation and economic development (Palme, 1982).
1983 - 1987: The world commission on environment and development: Toward official definition
The World Commission on Environment and Development—WCED—was created by the UN on December 19, 1983. Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar appointed Gro Harlem Brundtland as commission president, with the mandate to analyze major environmental and development challenges, propose realistic solutions, and foster new forms of international cooperation (United Nations, 1983).
Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, UN Secretary-General, with Gro Harlem Brundtland and Mansour Khalid, leaders of the Commission on Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 (1984) (UN Photo/Yutaka Nagata, 1984)
The commission, based in Geneva, was designed to ensure balanced representation [13]: 12 members from developing countries, 7 from Western industrialized countries, and 3 from Eastern Europe (WCED, 1987). Among its members stood out:
Gro Harlem Brundtland (Norway) [14]: Her leadership and consensus-building capacity were key, also contributing a public health perspective (Brundtland, 2002).
Mansour Khalid (Sudan): Vice-president, articulated the concerns of developing countries (WCED, 1987).
Jim MacNeill (Canada) [15]: Secretary-General, principal architect of the report, with extensive international experience (MacNeill, 2006).
Nitin Desai (India) [16]: Director of the Economics Division, contributed analysis on integrating economic and environmental aspects (Borowy, 2013).
Shridath Ramphal (Guyana): Focused on international trade and external debt (Holden, 2007).
Emil Salim (Indonesia): Specialist in natural resource management and tropical forests (WCED, 1987).
Maurice Strong (Canada) [17]: Although not a formal member, his experience as first UNEP director and organizer of the Stockholm Conference made him a key advisor (Strong, 2001).
The WCED adopted an unprecedented participatory methodology, holding eight deliberative meetings on different continents and organizing 15 public hearings with more than 1,000 organizations and experts from over 40 countries (MacNeill, 2006). Among the most relevant meetings were:
Geneva, Switzerland (1984): Inaugural session and objective definition [18].
Jakarta, Indonesia (1985): Rural development, agriculture, and environment [19].
Oslo, Norway (1985): Industrial pollution and multinational corporations [20].
São Paulo, Brazil (1985): Amazon deforestation and urbanization [21].
Vancouver/Ottawa, Canada (1986): Natural resource use in North America [22].
Harare, Zimbabwe and Nairobi, Kenya (1986): Desertification, rural poverty, and development in Africa [23].
Moscow, USSR (1986): Environment, disarmament, and international security [24].
Tokyo, Japan (1987): Final review of recommendations [25].
The result of this process was the report "Our Common Future", published in April 1987, which established the canonical definition of sustainable development and presented detailed recommendations in areas such as population, food security, energy, industry, and urban management (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). The formal presentation to the UN General Assembly took place on October 27, 1987, in New York (Borowy, 2013).
Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway, addressing the General Assembly on Environment and Development and presenting the Our Common Future report (UN Photo, 1987)
The report was structured in three parts:
Common Concerns: Definition of sustainable development and analysis of global problems [26].
Common Challenges: Sectoral analysis of key areas such as population, food, energy, and industrialization [27].
Common Endeavours: Concrete action proposals at local, national, and international levels [28].
Among the main recommendations were:
Policies to control population growth and improve education.
Strategies to achieve food security through sustainable production and support for small farmers.
Biodiversity conservation and expansion of protected areas.
Transition toward renewable energies and energy efficiency.
Promotion of cleaner and more responsible industry.
Sustainable urban management and decentralization.
Protection of global commons such as oceans and the atmosphere.
Recognition of the relationship between peace, security, and environmental sustainability.
Institutional and legal reforms to implement sustainable development.
Criticisms and debates following the birth of the sustainable development concept
The definition of sustainable development emerged after intense debates in the World Commission on Environment and Development. Although some members proposed alternatives such as "equitable development" or "responsible development," it was thanks to the push from Jim MacNeill and Nitin Desai that the term "sustainable development" was consolidated (Borowy, 2013). The adopted formulation—"development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own"—sought to harmonize ecological limits with the aspirations of the Global South [29]. It is based on two principles: prioritizing the needs of the poorest and recognizing how technology and social organization influence the environment. The goal is to achieve growth that benefits everyone without harming the planet.
The translation of the term has generated debate: in Spanish, “desarrollo sostenible” predominates, although some prefer “desarrollo sustentable”; in French, développement durable is used; and in Portuguese, desenvolvimento sustentável (Riechmann, 1995).
Legacy and immediate impact of the Brundtland report
The publication of the Brundtland Report in 1987 had an immediate effect on the international agenda. That same year, the UN adopted Resolution 42/187, requesting its agencies to incorporate the report's recommendations into their programs (United Nations, 1987). In 1988, the World Bank, under the direction of Barber Conable, began applying environmental criteria in project evaluation, while various universities created academic programs on sustainability. In 1989, Norway was the first country to establish a ministry of sustainable development, followed by other countries. That same year, UN Resolution 44/228 convened the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development of 1992, known as the Rio Earth Summit, which consolidated sustainable development on the international agenda (United Nations, 1989; Lafferty & Meadowcroft, 2000).
Conclusions
Sustainable development is the fruit of a long process that unites material progress and ecological limits, consolidated in the 1987 Brundtland Report. Although its ambiguity facilitated global consensus, it has also limited the implementation of profound changes. The main legacy of the report is offering a common framework for international dialogue, but the persistence of environmental crises shows that the challenge continues to be translating that consensus into effective actions.
Even today, the practical application of sustainable development remains a pending challenge... JT
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Quotes
Rachel Carson (1962): "Man is a part of nature, and his war against nature is inevitably a war against himself." — Silent Spring.
Barbara Ward (1972): "We have not inherited the earth from our fathers, we are borrowing it from our children." — Only One Earth: The Care and Maintenance of a Small Planet.
Barry Commoner (1971): "Everything is connected to everything else. There is one ecosphere for all living organisms and what affects one, affects all." — The Closing Circle: Nature, Man, and Technology.
Margaret Mead (1970s): "We won't have a society if we destroy the environment." — (Attributed in speeches and interviews of the era).
Notes
[1] Biophysical limits are the natural boundaries of the planet that determine the maximum amount of resources and pollutants that ecosystems can support without degrading.
[2] The UN Charter is the foundational treaty that establishes the principles, objectives, and structure of the United Nations, created in 1945 to promote peace, security, and international cooperation.
[3] The planet's carrying capacity is the maximum limit of human population and resource consumption that Earth can sustain in a balanced way without degrading its ecosystems.
[4] The Club of Rome was created in 1968 in Rome by Aurelio Peccei and Alexander King, who brought together experts concerned about the limits of economic growth and sustainable resource management. Currently, its main headquarters is in Winterthur, Switzerland. The organization aims to analyze major global challenges and promote solutions that guarantee sustainable and balanced development for the planet's future.
[5] MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology): A prestigious private university located in Cambridge, United States, recognized for its excellence in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, and for its strong focus on research and innovation.
[6] Planetary boundaries: Environmental thresholds that humanity should not exceed to maintain the planet's stability and support capacity, ensuring a safe environment for sustainable human development.
[7] The 1972 Stockholm Declaration established 26 fundamental principles that recognized the close interdependence between economic development and environmental protection. These principles laid the groundwork for responsible natural resource management, emphasizing the importance of ensuring the well-being of both present and future generations, and promoting international cooperation to face global environmental challenges.
[8] Ignacy Sachs was a Polish-French economist, pioneer in the concept of ecodevelopment, which integrates economic growth, equitable social welfare, and environmental preservation, promoting harmonious development with ecological limitations and sociocultural realities of each region.
[9] The Cocoyoc Declaration, adopted in Mexico in 1974 during a symposium sponsored by UNEP and UNCTAD, is a document that recognizes the difficulty of satisfying basic human needs in a world with profound inequalities and environmental degradation. It proposed the concept of ecodevelopment, emphasizing the importance of managing natural resources equitably and sustainably, and criticized the mechanical association between economic growth and development, advocating for a new, more just and responsible international economic order.
[10] The United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat I), held in Vancouver in 1976, established the connection between human habitat quality and social, economic, and environmental development, recognizing that urban settlement conditions directly affect people's well-being and opportunities. This meeting promoted the creation of international policies and strategies to improve housing, infrastructure, and access to basic services, emphasizing the importance of planned and sustainable urban development.
[11] The World Conservation Strategy, launched in 1980 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), establishes a global framework to protect biodiversity and promote sustainable use of natural resources, integrating conservation with economic and social development.
[12] The Brandt Commission, composed of leaders and experts from developed and developing countries under the presidency of Willy Brandt, presented in 1980 the report "North-South: A Programme for Survival." This document emphasized the interdependence between both hemispheres and proposed global cooperation to reduce poverty and inequality in the South through industrialization, financial transfers, and elimination of trade barriers, seeking more just and sustainable development to face global economic and social challenges.
[13] Other members included Susanna Agnelli (Italy), Saleh A. Al-Athel (Saudi Arabia), Bernard Chidzero (Zimbabwe), Volker Hauff (West Germany), István Láng (Hungary), Ma Shijun (China), Paulo Nogueira-Neto (Brazil), Margarita Marino de Botero (Colombia), Nagendra Singh (India), Saburo Okita (Japan), William Ruckelshaus (United States), Mohamed Sahnoun (Algeria), Bukar Shaib (Nigeria), Vladimir Sokolov (USSR), Janez Stanovnik (Yugoslavia) (WCED, 1987; Brundtland, 2002).
[14] Gro Harlem Brundtland is a Norwegian politician and physician, recognized for being the first woman to hold the position of Prime Minister of Norway, a role she performed in three periods between 1981 and 1996. She promoted public health and environmental policies; she presided over the World Commission on Environment and Development, which popularized the concept of sustainable development. Subsequently, she was Director-General of the World Health Organization and UN Special Envoy for climate change.
[15] Jim MacNeill was an influential Canadian diplomat, environmental consultant, and writer, primarily recognized for his role as principal author of the "Our Common Future" report. MacNeill dedicated his career to promoting sustainability and global cooperation on environmental issues.
[16] Nitin Desai is an Indian economist and international civil servant who served as Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations between 1992 and 2003. He was a pioneer in developing the concept of sustainable development, contributing as chief economic advisor to the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission). Desai organized and coordinated important global summits such as the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002. After retiring from the UN, he continued participating in public policies and advising on internet governance and sustainable development issues.
[17] Maurice Strong was a Canadian businessman, diplomat, and environmentalist, recognized for being the Secretary-General of the Stockholm Conference of 1972 and the first Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), playing a key role in institutionalizing the global environmental agenda.
[18] The Geneva meeting in October 1984 was the first formal gathering of the Commission, where objectives, methodology, and work agenda were defined, establishing the participatory and multidisciplinary approach that would guide its activities.
[19] In Jakarta, March 1985, the commission addressed rural development, agriculture, and forestry in developing countries, debating strategies to integrate environmental protection with agricultural and forest growth.
[20] In Oslo, June 1985, industrial pollution, waste management, international cooperation, and the role of multinational corporations were addressed, in addition to policies on food security and economic development.
[21] The São Paulo session, October 1985, focused on Amazon deforestation, urbanization, and the impact of external debt in Latin America, debating how to balance urban growth and ecosystem protection.
[22] In Vancouver and Ottawa, May-June 1986, report drafts were reviewed, key issues such as energy and industry were analyzed, and public hearings were held with more than 500 representatives who enriched the final recommendations.
[23] The Harare and Nairobi meetings in September 1986 addressed desertification, rural poverty, and sustainable development in Africa, incorporating local testimonies and highlighting the need to combat environmental degradation along with poverty.
[24] In Moscow, December 1986, the commission analyzed the relationship between environment, disarmament, and international security, highlighting the importance of integrating peace and cooperation in sustainability strategies.
[25] The last meeting in Tokyo, February 1987, concluded with the Tokyo Declaration, which reaffirmed global commitment to international cooperation and new actions for sustainable and equitable development.
[26] Common Concerns: First part of the report, presenting the diagnosis of the global environmental and social crisis and introducing the concept of sustainable development. This section analyzes how economic growth, social equity, and environmental protection are interrelated, emphasizing that development must satisfy current basic needs without putting those of future generations at risk. It also highlights the importance of international cooperation, warns about the planet's ecological limits, and points out inequalities between industrialized and developing countries, calling for a change in production and consumption models to guarantee global survival and well-being.
[27] Common Challenges: Second part of the report, analyzing the main sectoral challenges to achieve sustainable development. This section addresses issues such as population growth and distribution, food security, energy, industry, and urbanization, highlighting the need to integrate economic progress with social equity and environmental protection. The report emphasizes that problems such as climate change, resource scarcity, and environmental degradation can only be resolved through international cooperation and policies that consider both present and future generations' needs.
[28] Common Endeavours: Presents concrete proposals to implement sustainable development at local, national, and international levels. It addresses the management of global commons such as oceans, atmosphere, and Antarctica, and proposes necessary institutional and legal reforms to protect the environment. It also highlights the importance of international cooperation, citizen participation, and integration of economic, social, and environmental policies to ensure an equitable and sustainable future for all nations.
[29] Global South development refers to the process of economic, social, and political growth of countries historically marginalized in the international system, which share experiences of colonialism, inequality, and low income levels, and seek to improve their conditions through cooperation and solidarity among nations with similar challenges.
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