Agenda 21 and the MDGs: Three Decades of Sustainable Development 1987-2015
- Javier Trespalacios
- Sep 13, 2019
- 17 min read
Updated: Sep 4
For more than three decades—from the publication of the Brundtland Report in 1987 to the final evaluation of the Millennium Development Goals in 2015—the international community experienced a profound transformation in its understanding and approach to global challenges. During these three decades, the concept of sustainable development emerged and consolidated, evolving from a theoretical definition to becoming an operational framework with specific goals and measurement mechanisms. This period marked the transition from broad conceptual approaches to quantifiable commitments, establishing the institutional foundations for international cooperation on sustainability matters.
How did the world move from an ambitious definition to quantifiable commitments? This is the story of three decades of progress, tensions, and hopes...
1987-1992: The Conceptual Foundations of Sustainable Development
The World Commission on Environment and Development, chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland [1], published in 1987 "Our Common Future", a document that would establish the conceptual foundations of sustainable development as we understand it today (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987).
The historical context was crucial for the report's reception. The Chernobyl nuclear disaster (1986), the discovery of the ozone hole [2], and the external debt crises affecting Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa evidenced the interconnection between environmental, social, and economic problems. Simultaneously, the end of the Cold War freed diplomatic and financial resources, facilitating focus on common planetary challenges.
The Brundtland Report proposed an integral vision of sustainable development, articulated in three fundamental dimensions:
Dimension | Description | Implications |
Intragenerational equity | Fair distribution of resources within the current generation | Reduction of global and national inequalities |
Intergenerational equity | Preservation of opportunities for future generations | Conservation of resources and ecosystems |
Multidimensional integration | Harmonization of economic, social, and environmental objectives | Coordinated and coherent policies |
Dimensions of Sustainable Development according to the Brundtland Report
The Nordic countries, particularly Sweden and Norway, became the first adopters of the concept, leveraging their advanced environmental regulatory frameworks. The European Union, then in the process of environmental integration, gradually incorporated sustainability principles into its policies.
Among international organizations, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) actively promoted conceptual dissemination, while the World Bank began integrating environmental considerations into its development projects.
Resistance came primarily from traditional industrial sectors, especially in the United States and some oil-producing countries, which perceived the concept as a potential limitation to economic growth (McCormick, 1989). This tension between growth and sustainability would remain as one of the central debates of the period.
1992: The Earth Summit and Agenda 21
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), known as the Earth Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro from June 3-14, 1992. Maurice Strong [3], secretary-general of the conference, coordinated a consultation process that included four preparatory meetings (PrepCom) [4] in Nairobi (1990), Geneva (1991, two sessions), and New York (1992) (Strong, 1992).
Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro from June 3-14, 1992 (Expansión, 2012)
The process involved 178 governments, more than 2,400 representatives of non-governmental organizations, and approximately 17,000 people in the parallel forum, constituting the largest concentration of diverse actors in an international environmental conference to that date, where the UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali [5] (1992-1996), played a crucial role in facilitating negotiations between government delegations and promoting the adoption of ambitious commitments.
Brazil, as the host country, and the European Union led negotiations toward ambitious commitments, while the Group of 77 [6] supported technology transfer and additional financing for developing countries. The United States, under the George H.W. Bush administration, adopted cautious positions regarding specific financial commitments and binding temporal goals. Germany, led by Helmut Kohl, actively participated in discussions, promoting international dialogue and advancing environmental initiatives, motivated by its technological leadership. China expressed concerns about possible restrictions on its industrial development, while Persian Gulf countries opposed measures that would affect the oil industry.
The most significant result was the adoption of Agenda 21 (also called "Programme 21"), a comprehensive action plan structured in 40 chapters covering everything from fighting poverty to atmospheric protection and strengthening the role of major groups such as women, youth, and indigenous peoples (United Nations, 1992):
Section | Main Content | Chapters |
I - Social and Economic Dimensions | International cooperation, poverty eradication, consumption patterns, demographic dynamics, human health, human settlements | 1-8 |
II - Conservation and Management of Resources | Atmospheric protection, land use planning, deforestation control, fragile ecosystems, sustainable agriculture, biodiversity, water resources, oceans, hazardous waste | 9-22 |
III - Strengthening Major Groups | Women, children and youth, indigenous populations, NGOs, local authorities, workers, businesses, scientific community, farmers | 23-32 |
IV - Means of Implementation | Financial resources, technology transfer, science, education, training, institutional organization, legal instruments, information | 33-40 |
Structure of Agenda 21
Agenda 21 was based on innovative principles: common but differentiated responsibilities [7], recognizing different capacities between developed and developing countries; and the precautionary principle [8], establishing that scientific uncertainty should not prevent preventive measures against serious risks (United Nations, 1992).
Agenda 21 (United Nations)
The summit produced additional documents of historical importance (United Nations, 1992):
Instrumento | Purpose and Main Content |
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development | 27 fundamental principles for environmental protection and sustainable development, promoting global cooperation. |
Declaration of Principles on Forests | Voluntary guidelines for sustainable forest management, non-binding in nature. |
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change | International legal framework to address climate change, establishing obligations and cooperation mechanisms. |
Convention on Biological Diversity | International treaty for biodiversity conservation, sustainable use, and fair sharing of benefits. |
1992-2000: Implementation of Agenda 21
The post-Rio period was characterized by the proliferation of thematic conferences that developed specific aspects of Agenda 21:
Year | International Event | Location | Themes or Notable Contributions |
1994 | International Conference on Population and Development [13] | Cairo | Articulated connections between demographic growth, poverty, and environmental sustainability |
1995 | World Summit for Social Development [14] | Copenhagen | Established links between social exclusion, poverty, and environmental degradation |
1995 | Fourth World Conference on Women [15] | Beijing | Recognized the central role of women in sustainable development |
Strengthening Local Networks
Municipal networks experienced significant growth. ICLEI—Local Governments for Sustainability—[16] expanded its membership from 200 to more than 350 local governments, promoting the implementation of Local Agenda 21s [17]. The European Sustainable Cities Campaign [18], launched after the Aalborg Charter (1994) [19], mobilized more than 2,500 municipalities.
Non-governmental organizations diversified their strategies. The World Wildlife Fund [20] (WWF) developed eco-labeling programs [21] and the concept of "ecological footprint" [22], while Greenpeace [23] intensified campaigns against nuclear energy and industrial chemical pollution.
Mixed Environmental Results
Environmental results showed mixed progress. The gradual elimination of ozone-depleting substances was achieved through the Montreal Protocol [24], the expansion of protected areas increased from 8.2% to 11.5% of terrestrial surface, and air quality standards improved in cities of developed countries. The Conferences of the Parties (COP) [25] of the UNFCCC initiated negotiations that would culminate in the Kyoto Protocol [26] (1997).
However, significant challenges persisted: global greenhouse gas emissions continued to increase, deforestation continued in tropical regions, and biodiversity loss accelerated, evidencing the need for more specific and measurable approaches.
Despite initial enthusiasm, Rio's promises did not always translate into tangible results, paving the way for new strategies...
2000: The Millennium Development Goals - MDGs
At the end of the 20th century, a perception of "implementation fatigue" [27] emerged regarding Agenda 21, due to its conceptual breadth and the absence of clear goals that made progress measurement difficult. The global context was characterized by the Asian financial crisis (1997-1998), conflicts in the Balkans, the HIV/AIDS pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa, and the recognition that globalization benefits were not equitably distributed.
The Millennium Summit: New Paradigm
The United Nations Millennium Summit [28], held in September 2000 in New York under the leadership of Secretary-General Kofi Annan [29] (1997-2006), marked a strategic shift toward the focus and quantification of development objectives.
The Millennium Declaration [30] was translated into the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), abandoning the breadth of Agenda 21 in favor of specific, measurable goals with defined timelines and focused on human development.
The 8 Millennium Development Goals - MDGs
The formulation had technical leadership from economists like Jeffrey Sachs [31], director of the UN Millennium Project [32], and conceptual influence from Amartya Sen's [33] work on human capabilities (Sachs, 2005; Sen, 1999).
The MDGs were structured into 8 main objectives with 21 specific targets and more than 60 quantitative indicators with a 2015 deadline:
MDG | Main Objective | Main Targets and Examples | No. of Targets | No. of Indicators |
1 | Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger | Halve extreme poverty (income < $1.25/day) and hunger; full employment and decent work | 3 | 8 |
2 | Achieve universal primary education | Ensure all children complete primary school | 1 | 3 |
3 | Promote gender equality and women's empowerment | Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education; promote women's political and economic participation | 1 | 4 |
4 | Reduce child mortality | Reduce under-5 mortality by two-thirds | 1 | 4 |
5 | Improve maternal health | Reduce maternal mortality by three-quarters; universal access to reproductive health | 2 | 5 |
6 | Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases | Halt and reduce HIV/AIDS spread; universal access to treatment; reduce malaria and tuberculosis incidence | 3 | 8 |
7 | Ensure environmental sustainability | Incorporate sustainable development principles; reduce biodiversity loss; halve people without access to safe water and sanitation; improve slum life | 4 | 11 |
8 | Develop a global partnership for development | Open trading system; address needs of least developed countries; access to medicines and new technologies; address external debt | 6 | 17 |
TOTAL | 8 Goals | 21 | 60 |
Structure of the Millennium Development Goals
The synthesis process transformed the Millennium Declaration commitments into quantifiable objectives. As Sachs (2005) explained: "The MDGs translate political aspirations into specific, measurable, time-bound goals". This orientation toward measurable results represented a paradigmatic shift from previous process-based approaches. The differences with Agenda 21 were as follows:
Characteristic | Agenda 21 (1992) | Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (2000) |
Philosophy | Holistic and integrative. An action plan. | Focused and pragmatic. A set of goals. |
Scope | Global and comprehensive (40 chapters). | Centered on social and human development. |
Approach | Based on processes and policies (the "how"). | Based on quantifiable results (the "what"). |
Actors | Directed at all levels of government and society. | Primarily directed at developing countries, with support from developed ones. |
Mechanism | Non-binding, without clear temporal goals. | 8 objectives, 21 targets and 60 indicators with deadline (2015). |
Environmental pillar | Central and transversal to the entire document. | Present, but concentrated in a single objective (MDG 7). |
From Agenda 21 to MDGs: A Paradigm Shift
2000-2015: Implementation and Evaluation of the MDGs
The 2000-2015 period witnessed the emergence of new actors. The BRICS countries [34] (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) developed alternative South-South cooperation mechanisms, challenging the traditional hegemony of Western donors. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation [35], created by Bill Gates [36], consolidated as an influential actor in financing global health policies, particularly in the fight against infectious diseases in developing countries.
Progress showed marked regional and sectoral differences. East Asia achieved the extreme poverty reduction target five years ahead of schedule, mainly due to sustained economic growth in China and India. Latin America registered significant advances in primary education and reduction of infant mortality.
Sub-Saharan Africa faced the greatest challenges, with limited progress in most indicators, conditioned by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, prolonged armed conflicts, and persistent institutional weakness. Achievements included:
Indicator | 2000 Situation | 2015 Situation | Progress |
Extreme poverty (%) | 36% | 12% | Target achieved |
Primary enrollment (%) | 83% | 91% | Significant progress |
Child mortality (per 1,000) | 90 | 43 | 53% reduction |
Access to safe water (millions) | — | +2,600 (improved) | Target achieved |
People with HIV (new infections) | — | — | Notable progress (40% reduction) |
Main MDG achievements (2000-2015)
Lessons Learned
The lessons learned informed the design of the post-2015 agenda, including the need for more integrated objectives that recognized interconnections between economic, social, and environmental dimensions, the importance of disaggregated indicators to monitor equity, and the need for more diversified and sustainable financing mechanisms (UNDP, 2005, 2010).
Chronological Timeline: Main Milestones of Sustainable Development (1987-2015)
Year | Event | Document/Result | Main Actors |
1987 | Brundtland Report Publication | Our Common Future | WCED, G.H. Brundtland |
1992 | Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) | Agenda 21, Rio Declaration | UN, M. Strong, 178 governments |
1994 | Cairo Conference (Cairo, Egypt) | Programme of Action on Population | UN, UNFPA |
1994 | European Conference on Sustainable Cities (Aalborg, Denmark) | Aalborg Charter | European Commission, ICLEI, European local authorities |
1995 | Copenhagen Summit (Copenhagen, Denmark) | Declaration on Social Development | UN, governments |
1995 | Beijing Conference (Beijing, China) | Platform of Action on Women | UN, women's organizations |
1997 | Rio+5 (New York, USA) | Agenda 21 Evaluation | UN General Assembly |
2000 | Millennium Summit (New York, USA) | Millennium Declaration, MDGs | UN, 189 countries |
2002 | Johannesburg Summit (Johannesburg, South Africa) | Implementation Plan | UN, South Africa |
2005 | MDG Evaluation | Progress Report | UN, J. Sachs |
2010 | MDG Evaluation | Ten-Year Progress Report | UN, member countries |
2012 | Rio+20 (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) | The Future We Want | UN, Brazil, 193 countries |
2015 | Summit on Sustainable Development (New York, USA) | 2030 Agenda, SDGs | UN, 193 countries |
Conclusions
The evolution of sustainable development between 1987 and 2015 reflected the progressive maturation of international cooperation mechanisms and the growing understanding of interconnections between global challenges. From the conceptual definition of the Brundtland Report to the quantitative operationalization of the MDGs, sustainable development experienced fundamental transformations in terms of scope, specificity, and implementation mechanisms:
Block | Key Aspect | Brief Description | Factors that facilitated evolution / Persistent obstacles |
End of Cold War | Freed resources and attention | Shifted focus to shared global problems post-bipolar conflict | Facilitation: Freed resources and attention for shared global problems |
Economic globalization | Increased interdependence | Greater economic integration and need for international coordination | Facilitation: Increased interdependence and need for coordination |
Transboundary environmental crises | Need for collective responses | Crises like climate change require multilateral solutions | Facilitation: Evidenced the need for collective responses |
Technological advances | Monitoring and communication | Improved tools for tracking, reporting, and sharing global challenges | Facilitation: Facilitated monitoring and communication of results |
Persistent obstacles | North-South tensions | Disputes over responsibilities and financial obligations between countries | Obstacle: Over differentiated responsibilities and financing |
Persistent obstacles | Multidimensional integration | Difficulty balancing economic, social, and environmental goals | Obstacle: Difficulty harmonizing objectives |
Persistent obstacles | Financial resources | Insufficient funding for ambitious global objectives | Obstacle: Insufficiency to achieve ambitious objectives |
Persistent obstacles | Multilevel coordination | Complexity of engaging multiple governments and non-state actors | Obstacle: Complexity among multiple governmental and non-state actors |
This period established the institutional, conceptual, and methodological foundations that would sustain the following phases of global sustainable development, culminating in the adoption of the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals.
With the arrival of 2015, the world evaluated the achievements and deficiencies of three decades of efforts for sustainable development. Agenda 21 laid the foundations; the MDGs defined goals. But structural challenges, from persistent poverty to climate change, demanded a new stage: the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), launched that same year, would mark the agenda of the 21st century...
Notes
[1] Gro Harlem Brundtland (1939-): Norwegian physician and politician, Prime Minister of Norway on three occasions. Chaired the World Commission on Environment and Development that elaborated the "Our Common Future" Report in 1987, establishing the classic definition of sustainable development.
[2] Ozone layer depletion is the process by which the thickness and concentration of ozone in the stratosphere is reduced, mainly due to the action of certain chemical compounds emitted by human activities, which increases Earth's exposure to harmful ultraviolet radiation.
[3] Maurice Strong (1929-2015): Canadian businessman and environmental diplomat. Secretary-General of the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment (1972) and the Rio Earth Summit (1992). Considered the "father of the global environmental movement."
[4] The PrepCom, or Preparatory Committee, plays a fundamental role in the framework of major international conferences organized by the UN. Its function consists of coordinating and organizing activities prior to these meetings, ensuring that main themes are well defined, documents negotiated, and consensus among member states facilitated. In this way, the PrepCom contributes to sustainable development conferences and other global matters developing efficiently and with greater probability of achieving concrete results.
[5] Boutros Boutros-Ghali was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations, serving from 1992 to 1996. A renowned Egyptian diplomat and jurist, he stood out for his commitment to peace and international cooperation, facing global challenges during a period of profound changes in the international system.
[6] The Group of 77 (G-77) is a coalition of developing countries, originally formed by 77 states and currently comprising more than 130 members, which seeks to promote collective interests and strengthen the negotiating capacity of its members on economic development and international cooperation issues, especially within the United Nations and other multilateral forums.
[7] The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) recognizes that all countries share the obligation to protect the environment and promote sustainable development, but accepts that this responsibility varies according to each one's capacities and historical contribution. Thus, developed countries, which have generated greater environmental impact and have more resources, must assume a leadership role and support developing countries through technology transfer and financing. This approach seeks to make international cooperation more just and effective, allowing all nations to advance toward global sustainability goals, without leaving anyone behind.
[8] The precautionary principle indicates that in the face of risks of serious damage to the environment or health, the lack of scientific certainty should not prevent taking preventive measures to avoid irreversible harm.
[9] The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development is an international document adopted in 1992 during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. It establishes fundamental principles to guide environmental protection and sustainable development, recognizing the right of all human beings to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature, as well as the need for global cooperation to conserve the environment and promote equity between countries and generations.
[10] The Declaration of Principles on Forests, adopted at the 1992 Rio Summit, is a set of voluntary guidelines to promote the management, conservation, and sustainable development of all types of forests worldwide, recognizing their importance for the environment, socioeconomic development, and the sovereign rights of each country over its forest resources.
[11] The UNFCCC is an international agreement adopted in 1992 whose main objective is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous human interference with the climate system, allowing ecosystems to adapt naturally and economic development to continue sustainably.
[12] The CBD is a global treaty created in 1992 to promote biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of its components, and equitable distribution of benefits derived from genetic resources, recognizing the importance of biological diversity for human welfare and environmental balance.
[13] The International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo in 1994 highlighted the interrelationships between demographic growth, poverty, and environmental sustainability, promoting sustainable development as key to solving these challenges and prioritizing human rights, gender equality, and reproductive health as fundamental pillars of the global agenda.
[14] The World Summit for Social Development held in Copenhagen in 1995 established a comprehensive vision linking social exclusion and poverty with environmental degradation, promoting sustainable social development and highlighting that the fight against poverty, employment promotion, and social integration require coordinated actions and policies that also protect the environment.
[15] The Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995, recognized the central role of women in sustainable development by establishing gender equality and women's empowerment as essential elements for social, economic, and environmental progress, and reaffirmed that the full and equitable participation of women is key to achieving people-centered sustainable development.
[16] ICLEI—Local Governments for Sustainability (originally called International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives)—is an international network of local and regional governments dedicated to promoting sustainable urban development, facilitating cooperation, exchange of best practices, and technical support to face environmental challenges such as climate change and ecosystem degradation.
[17] Local Agenda 21s are municipal initiatives that seek to promote sustainable development at the local level through citizen participation and the integration of environmental, social, and economic objectives in public policies, inspired by the global Agenda 21 from the 1992 Earth Summit.
[18] The European Sustainable Cities Campaign is an initiative that promotes sustainable development in European cities, fostering cooperation between local authorities, exchange of best practices, and commitment to Local Agenda 21, inspired by the 1994 Aalborg Charter.
[19] The 1994 Aalborg Charter is a document approved during the European Conference on Sustainable Cities held in Aalborg (Denmark), in which European cities and local authorities commit to promoting sustainable development in their territories, participating in initiatives such as local Agenda 21 and adopting policies that integrate environmental protection, social justice, and urban quality of life.
[20] The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is one of the largest and most recognized international organizations dedicated to nature and environmental conservation. Its main mission is to stop the degradation of the planet's natural environment and build a future where human beings live in harmony with nature, working on species protection, habitat conservation, and promoting sustainable use of natural resources.
[21] Eco-labeling is a certification system that allows identification of products and services that meet specific environmental criteria, promoting responsible consumption and reducing environmental impact throughout their life cycle. These labels help consumers choose more sustainable options and foster ecological innovation in industry.
[22] The ecological footprint is an indicator that measures the environmental impact of human activities on the planet, calculating the amount of natural resources and waste absorption capacity required by a person, community, or country to satisfy their lifestyle. This concept is fundamental for promoting sustainability and environmental awareness in society.
[23] Greenpeace is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1971, mainly dedicated to environmental defense and peace promotion. Its approach is based on direct actions, public awareness campaigns, and political pressure to protect nature, combat climate change, and defend environmental rights, being recognized worldwide for its activism on issues such as forest protection and the fight against ozone layer depletion.
[24] The Montreal Protocol is an international agreement adopted in 1987 to protect the ozone layer, establishing the gradual elimination of chemical substances that damage it, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This treaty is considered one of the most successful examples of global cooperation on environmental matters and has allowed significant recovery of the ozone layer.
[25] The COP (Conference of the Parties) is the highest decision-making body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), where all countries that have ratified the convention participate to agree on global actions and policies against climate change. It is held annually and its decisions are made by consensus among the parties.
[26] The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty adopted in 1997 that commits mainly industrialized countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by an average of 5% compared to 1990 levels, during the 2008-2012 period. These countries must meet individual reduction targets and can use flexible mechanisms such as emissions trading, clean development mechanism, and joint implementation to achieve them. The main objective is to slow global warming and climate change.
[27] "Implementation fatigue" regarding Agenda 21 describes the wear or loss of momentum that local sustainability processes suffer after an initial stage of motivation, due to lack of resources, commitment, or citizen participation, making it difficult to consolidate real and lasting changes in municipal management. This phenomenon limits the effectiveness of sustainable development efforts in communities.
[28] The United Nations Millennium Summit, held in 2000, brought together world leaders to establish the Millennium Development Goals, a set of global targets aimed at reducing poverty, improving health, education, and gender equality, and promoting sustainable development by 2015. This summit marked a milestone in international cooperation for human progress and social welfare.
[29] Kofi Annan (1938-2018): Ghanaian diplomat, seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations (1997-2006). Nobel Peace Prize 2001 together with the UN. Led the adoption of the Millennium Development Goals at the 2000 Millennium Summit and actively promoted UN reform and the responsibility to protect.
[30] The Millennium Declaration was approved in September 2000 by world leaders gathered at UN headquarters in New York, reaffirming their commitment to the principles of peace, justice, human rights, and international cooperation. This document laid the foundations for the creation of the Millennium Development Goals, aimed at combating poverty, hunger, disease, inequality, and environmental degradation by 2015.
[31] Jeffrey Sachs (1954-): American economist, Columbia University professor. Director of the UN Millennium Project (2002-2006), provided technical leadership in the formulation and promotion of the Millennium Development Goals.
[32] The Millennium Project was a UN initiative tasked with designing a practical plan to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, proposing effective strategies and recommendations that would allow radical improvement of living conditions for the world's poorest people by 2015. This project sought to integrate actions at national and international levels, facilitating the implementation and monitoring of the MDGs.
[33] Amartya Sen (1933-): Indian economist and philosopher, Nobel Prize in Economics 1998. His contributions on human development and capabilities significantly influenced the conceptual framework of the MDGs, especially in the multidimensional understanding of poverty.
[34] BRICS is an international group of emerging economies currently composed of Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, and other recently incorporated countries, which seeks to strengthen economic, political, and social cooperation as a counterweight to the dominance of developed countries.
[35] The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation is one of the world's largest philanthropic organizations, dedicated to improving global health, reducing extreme poverty, and expanding access to education and technology, with special attention to vulnerable populations in developing countries. Its work encompasses the fight against diseases, support for sustainable agriculture, and promotion of equal opportunities.
[36] Bill Gates (1955-): American businessman and philanthropist, co-founder of Microsoft. Through the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, he became an influential actor in global health policies and development, especially in the fight against infectious diseases in developing countries.
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